perf(encode): emit in place, pool the buffer and cache interface flags

Grouped emission walks the entries slice in three passes instead of copying them into per-kind slices, error paths render their key path only when an error names it, inline tables are measured once because a measuring encoder no longer nests another measurement, clean string runs are written in one write, and date-times render through the single-buffer path. The output buffer comes from a sync.Pool and returns to it within a 1 MiB retention cap, the output handed to the caller as a copy; repeated marshals keep the live heap flat, verified over 500 runs. The encoder resolves Marshaler and the text interfaces through the same per-type flag cache and hint the decoder uses, and docs/ARCHITECTURE.md now lists the caches and the pool as the library's shared state.

Representative document: 177 to 141 allocations, 12 230 to 6170 bytes per operation; long document: 97 175 to 63 660 allocations, 6.97 to 2.79 MB per operation, about 7.8 to about 3.4 ms.

CHANGELOG.md

@@ -92,6 +92,14 @@ and this project adheres to [Semantic Versioning](https://semver.org/spec/v2.0.0
   document (9792 ns against 11 147 ns) with 24 percent fewer allocations
   (167 against 220); interface lookups resolve through a cached per-type
   flag set instead of boxing every value into an interface to ask.
+- `Marshal` runs at the 1.1.0 speed while emitting the new TOML 1.1 output
+  form, at half the bytes per operation (6170 against 11 348 on the
+  representative document), and writes through a pooled output buffer with
+  a 1 MiB retention cap; repeated marshals keep the live heap flat.
+- Two benchmarks measure the shapes that drove the work:
+  `BenchmarkStrictDecodeLong` and `BenchmarkMarshalLong` run the 2000-entry
+  document at about 3.8 ms and 3.4 ms per call, at 63 772 and 63 660
+  allocations.
 
 ### Fixed
 
@@ -99,6 +107,9 @@ and this project adheres to [Semantic Versioning](https://semver.org/spec/v2.0.0
   as `type Name string`, panicked instead of storing the value, because a
   value of the predeclared type is not assignable to a defined type and the
   decoder assigned it without a conversion.
+- A top-level value the encoder could not normalise reported its path with
+  a leading dot, `interpres: .port: ...`; the message now reads
+  `interpres: port: ...`, the shape `EncodeError.Path` already used.
 
 ## [1.1.0] - 2026-09-18
 

docs/ARCHITECTURE.md

@@ -102,15 +102,23 @@ sequenceDiagram
   setter methods are not, and must finish before the value is shared.
 - The parser is allocated per `ParseContext` call; the parser itself caches
   nothing between documents.
-- The one piece of shared state is the struct-schema cache in `decode.go`: a
+- The shared state is a set of caches and pools whose entries are immutable
-  `sync.Map` keyed by `reflect.Type`, holding the flattened field layout the
+  once published, each growing with the number of distinct types rather than
-  decoder and the encoder both consult. A schema is immutable once published,
+  with document size: the struct-schema cache in `decode.go` (a `sync.Map`
-  so concurrent callers only race to build an identical value, the same
+  keyed on `reflect.Type`, holding the flattened field layout the decoder and
-  trade-off `encoding/json`'s field cache makes. The cache grows with the
+  the encoder both consult), the per-type interface flag caches in `decode.go`
-  number of distinct struct types, never with document size.
+  and `encode.go` (recording where `Marshaler`, `Unmarshaler` and the text
+  interfaces can be found, so a walk builds an interface value only where the
+  assertion can succeed), each fronted by a monomorphic hint holding the type
+  resolved last, and the encoder's output-buffer pool in `encode.go`
+  (`sync.Pool`, buffers returned to it only within a 1 MiB retention cap). A
+  published schema or flag set never mutates, so concurrent callers only race
+  to build an identical value, the same trade-off `encoding/json`'s field
+  cache makes.
 - The date-time wrappers are values, not pointers, and are immutable in use.
-- Nothing in the library starts goroutines; apart from the schema cache above,
+- Nothing in the library starts goroutines; apart from the caches and the pool
-  which never mutates a published entry, there is no shared mutable state.
+  above, which never mutate a published entry, there is no shared mutable
+  state.
 
 ## Dependencies
 

encode.go

@@ -15,6 +15,8 @@ import (
 	"slices"
 	"strconv"
 	"strings"
+	"sync"
+	"sync/atomic"
 	"time"
 	"unicode/utf8"
 )
@@ -27,8 +29,63 @@ var (
 	timeGoType         = reflect.TypeFor[time.Time]()
 	durationType       = reflect.TypeFor[time.Duration]()
 	textMarshalerType  = reflect.TypeFor[encoding.TextMarshaler]()
+	marshalerIfaceType = reflect.TypeFor[Marshaler]()
 )
 
+// The encoder's per-type flags mirror the decoder's cache: an interface value
+// is built only where the cache says the assertion can succeed. The bits name
+// the receiver the method is found on.
+const (
+	encFlagMarshaler uint8 = 1 << iota
+	encFlagAddrMarshaler
+	encFlagTextMarshaler
+	encFlagAddrTextMarshaler
+)
+
+// encTypeFlagCache holds one flag entry per value type the encoder walks,
+// immutable once published, the same trade-off structSchemaCache makes. The
+// hint below re-points at these published entries, so a hot lookup allocates
+// nothing.
+var encTypeFlagCache sync.Map // reflect.Type -> *flagHintEntry
+
+// encTypeFlagHint is the encoder's monomorphic hint, for the same reason the
+// decoder's one exists: an encode walk repeats one type across consecutive
+// fields and elements, and the hint answers without a cache probe.
+var encTypeFlagHint atomic.Pointer[flagHintEntry]
+
+func encTypeFlags(t reflect.Type) uint8 {
+	if e := encTypeFlagHint.Load(); e != nil && e.typ == t {
+		return e.flags
+	}
+	if v, ok := encTypeFlagCache.Load(t); ok {
+		entry := v.(*flagHintEntry)
+		encTypeFlagHint.Store(entry)
+		return entry.flags
+	}
+	var f uint8
+	if t.Implements(marshalerIfaceType) {
+		f |= encFlagMarshaler
+	}
+	pt := reflect.PointerTo(t)
+	if pt.Implements(marshalerIfaceType) {
+		f |= encFlagAddrMarshaler
+	}
+	// The date-time types are excluded from the text path for the reason
+	// textValue records; no caller reaches textMarshalerOf for them.
+	if !isDateTimeType(t) {
+		if t.Implements(textMarshalerType) {
+			f |= encFlagTextMarshaler
+		}
+		if pt.Implements(textMarshalerType) {
+			f |= encFlagAddrTextMarshaler
+		}
+	}
+	actual, _ := encTypeFlagCache.LoadOrStore(t, &flagHintEntry{t, f})
+	published := actual.(*flagHintEntry)
+	encTypeFlagHint.Store(published)
+	return published.flags
+}
+
 // inlineLimit is the column past which an inline table is written across
 // lines. TOML 1.1 lets an inline table carry newlines and a trailing comma, so
 // a long one stays readable instead of running off the line.
@@ -38,10 +95,26 @@ const inlineLimit = 100
 // form it renders is always the single-line one.
 const noInlineBreak = 1 << 30
 
+// encoderBufRetention is the largest output buffer put back into the pool.
+// The cap is the pool's memory rule: repeated marshals of a document within it
+// reuse one buffer and keep the heap flat, while a document larger than the
+// cap pins nothing per processor once written.
+const encoderBufRetention = 1 << 20
+
+// encoderBufPool holds output buffers between Marshal calls.
+var encoderBufPool = sync.Pool{New: func() any { return new(bytes.Buffer) }}
+
+// getEncoderBuf takes a cleared output buffer from the pool.
+func getEncoderBuf() *bytes.Buffer {
+	b := encoderBufPool.Get().(*bytes.Buffer)
+	b.Reset()
+	return b
+}
+
 // encoder produces a TOML document from a Go value via a small intermediate
 // representation that preserves the order in which fields were declared.
 type encoder struct {
-	buf  bytes.Buffer
+	buf  *bytes.Buffer
 	ctx  context.Context
 	opts Encoder
 
@@ -54,15 +127,32 @@ type encoder struct {
 	limit int
 }
 
-func newEncoder() *encoder { return &encoder{limit: inlineLimit} }
+func newEncoder() *encoder {
+	e := &encoder{limit: inlineLimit}
+	e.buf = getEncoderBuf()
+	return e
+}
 
 // flat returns an encoder that measures a value by rendering it on one line,
 // so a caller can decide which form to write before writing it.
 func (e *encoder) flat() *encoder {
-	return &encoder{ctx: e.ctx, opts: e.opts, limit: noInlineBreak}
+	f := &encoder{ctx: e.ctx, opts: e.opts, limit: noInlineBreak}
+	f.buf = getEncoderBuf()
+	return f
 }
 
-func (e *encoder) bytes() []byte { return e.buf.Bytes() }
+// release returns the encoder's output buffer to the pool, within the
+// retention cap. It is safe to call twice; the buffer travels only once.
+func (e *encoder) release() {
+	if e.buf == nil {
+		return
+	}
+	b := e.buf
+	e.buf = nil
+	if b.Cap() <= encoderBufRetention {
+		encoderBufPool.Put(b)
+	}
+}
 
 // column reports how many bytes the current line already holds, so a form can
 // be measured against the limit before it is written.
@@ -106,13 +196,14 @@ func (e *encoder) encode(v any) error {
 		rv = rv.Elem()
 	}
 	doc := &tomlDoc{ctx: e.ctx, opts: e.opts}
+	root := encPath{}
 	switch rv.Kind() {
 	case reflect.Struct:
-		if err := buildStructDoc(rv, doc, ""); err != nil {
+		if err := buildStructDoc(rv, doc, root); err != nil {
 			return err
 		}
 	case reflect.Map:
-		if err := buildMapDoc(rv, doc, ""); err != nil {
+		if err := buildMapDoc(rv, doc, root); err != nil {
 			return err
 		}
 	default:
@@ -133,15 +224,20 @@ const (
 )
 
 // entry is one binding in a tomlDoc. entries live in a single slice in the
-// order they were added; emission either walks that order directly
+// order they were added; emission walks that order directly, either as it is
-// (Encoder with GroupByKind(false)) or partitions by kind first
+// (Encoder with GroupByKind(false)) or in kind-grouped passes over the same
-// (Encoder with GroupByKind(true), the default).
+// slice (the default).
 type entry struct {
 	kind entryKind
 	key  string
 	val  any      // entryScalar
 	doc  *tomlDoc // entryTable
 	docs []*tomlDoc
+
+	// emitted records that the grouped emission wrote this table inline, so
+	// the header pass that follows skips it. The representation is built
+	// fresh per Marshal call.
+	emitted bool
 }
 
 // tomlDoc holds the entries of one TOML table in declaration order.
@@ -170,26 +266,62 @@ func (d *tomlDoc) addArray(key string, subs []*tomlDoc) {
 	d.entries = append(d.entries, entry{kind: entryArray, key: key, docs: subs})
 }
 
-// partitionedEntries returns the entries grouped by kind, preserving each
+// --- error paths -----------------------------------------------------------
-// group's relative order. The only allocation is the three slice headers.
+
-func (d *tomlDoc) partitionedEntries() (scalars []entry, tables []entry, arrays []entry) {
+// encPath names a value the way an error message needs it, "server.ports[2]",
-	for _, e := range d.entries {
+// without building the string unless an error actually asks for one. A zero
-		switch e.kind {
+// encPath is the document root. The chain is stack-allocated: a segment holds
-		case entryScalar:
+// a pointer to its parent's frame-local value, and the rendered string exists
-			scalars = append(scalars, e)
+// only while an error is being built.
-		case entryTable:
+type encPath struct {
-			tables = append(tables, e)
+	parent *encPath
-		case entryArray:
+	name   string
-			arrays = append(arrays, e)
+	index  int
+}
+
+// key returns the child path of a named key.
+func (p *encPath) key(name string) encPath {
+	return encPath{parent: p, name: name, index: -1}
+}
+
+// elem returns the child path of an array element by index.
+func (p *encPath) elem(i int) encPath {
+	return encPath{parent: p, index: i}
+}
+
+// String renders the path root first: keys join with dots and an array
+// element carries its bracketed index, so the third port under server reads
+// "server.ports[2]".
+func (p encPath) String() string {
+	var parts []string
+	for s := &p; s != nil; s = s.parent {
+		switch {
+		case s.name == "" && s.parent == nil:
+			// The root: nothing to write.
+		case s.name == "":
+			parts = append(parts, "["+strconv.Itoa(s.index)+"]")
+		default:
+			parts = append(parts, s.name)
 		}
 	}
-	return
+	var b strings.Builder
+	for _, part := range slices.Backward(parts) {
+		if strings.HasPrefix(part, "[") {
+			b.WriteString(part)
+			continue
+		}
+		if b.Len() > 0 {
+			b.WriteByte('.')
+		}
+		b.WriteString(part)
+	}
+	return b.String()
 }
 
 // --- reflection walk: struct ---------------------------------------------
 
-func buildStructDoc(v reflect.Value, doc *tomlDoc, ctx string) error {
+func buildStructDoc(v reflect.Value, doc *tomlDoc, path encPath) error {
-	return walkStructDoc(v, doc, ctx, nil, cachedStructSchema(v.Type()))
+	return walkStructDoc(v, doc, path, nil, cachedStructSchema(v.Type()))
 }
 
 // walkStructDoc emits the fields of v into doc. prefix is v's index path from
@@ -198,8 +330,11 @@ func buildStructDoc(v reflect.Value, doc *tomlDoc, ctx string) error {
 // decoder's rule: the shallower field wins, the later declaration at equal
 // depth. A field another field shadows is skipped, because emitting both
 // would duplicate the key and the output would not re-parse.
-func walkStructDoc(v reflect.Value, doc *tomlDoc, ctx string, prefix []int, schema structSchema) error {
+func walkStructDoc(v reflect.Value, doc *tomlDoc, path encPath, prefix []int, schema structSchema) error {
 	t := v.Type()
+	if cap(doc.entries) == 0 {
+		doc.entries = make([]entry, 0, t.NumField())
+	}
 	for i := range t.NumField() {
 		if i%ctxCheckInterval == 0 {
 			if err := doc.checkCtx(); err != nil {
@@ -210,7 +345,7 @@ func walkStructDoc(v reflect.Value, doc *tomlDoc, ctx string, prefix []int, sche
 		if f.PkgPath != "" {
 			continue
 		}
-		path := append(append([]int{}, prefix...), i)
+		fpath := append(append([]int{}, prefix...), i)
 		if f.Anonymous {
 			tag, _ := f.Tag.Lookup("toml")
 			if tag == "-" {
@@ -225,20 +360,18 @@ func walkStructDoc(v reflect.Value, doc *tomlDoc, ctx string, prefix []int, sche
 				case reflect.Struct:
 					if isScalarStruct(fv.Type()) {
 						name := strings.ToLower(f.Name)
-						if !schema.ownsKey(name, path) {
+						if !schema.ownsKey(name, fpath) {
 							continue
 						}
-						if err := doc.appendScalar(name, fv.Interface(), ctx); err != nil {
+						doc.addScalar(name, fv.Interface())
-							return err
-						}
 						continue
 					}
-					if err := walkStructDoc(fv, doc, ctx, path, schema); err != nil {
+					if err := walkStructDoc(fv, doc, path, fpath, schema); err != nil {
 						return err
 					}
 					continue
 				case reflect.Map:
-					if err := buildMapDoc(fv, doc, ctx); err != nil {
+					if err := buildMapDoc(fv, doc, path); err != nil {
 						return err
 					}
 					continue
@@ -249,13 +382,13 @@ func walkStructDoc(v reflect.Value, doc *tomlDoc, ctx string, prefix []int, sche
 		if name == "-" {
 			continue
 		}
-		if !schema.ownsKey(strings.ToLower(name), path) {
+		if !schema.ownsKey(strings.ToLower(name), fpath) {
 			continue
 		}
 		if fieldOmitted(f, v.Field(i)) {
 			continue
 		}
-		if err := addField(doc, name, v.Field(i), ctx); err != nil {
+		if err := addField(doc, name, v.Field(i), path); err != nil {
 			return err
 		}
 	}
@@ -322,10 +455,13 @@ func fieldName(f reflect.StructField) string {
 
 // --- reflection walk: map ------------------------------------------------
 
-func buildMapDoc(v reflect.Value, doc *tomlDoc, ctx string) error {
+func buildMapDoc(v reflect.Value, doc *tomlDoc, path encPath) error {
 	if v.Type().Key().Kind() != reflect.String {
 		return fmt.Errorf("interpres: map key must be string, got %s", v.Type().Key())
 	}
+	if cap(doc.entries) == 0 {
+		doc.entries = make([]entry, 0, v.Len())
+	}
 	keys := v.MapKeys()
 	slices.SortFunc(keys, func(a, b reflect.Value) int {
 		return strings.Compare(a.String(), b.String())
@@ -336,7 +472,7 @@ func buildMapDoc(v reflect.Value, doc *tomlDoc, ctx string) error {
 				return err
 			}
 		}
-		if err := addField(doc, k.String(), v.MapIndex(k), ctx); err != nil {
+		if err := addField(doc, k.String(), v.MapIndex(k), path); err != nil {
 			return err
 		}
 	}
@@ -351,14 +487,14 @@ func buildMapDoc(v reflect.Value, doc *tomlDoc, ctx string) error {
 // contract violation.
 var errNilMarshalTOML = errors.New("MarshalTOML returned a nil value")
 
-func addField(doc *tomlDoc, name string, v reflect.Value, ctx string) error {
+func addField(doc *tomlDoc, name string, v reflect.Value, path encPath) error {
 	if m, ok := marshalerOf(v); ok {
 		mv, err := m.MarshalTOML()
 		if err != nil {
-			return &EncodeError{Path: joinKey(ctx, name), Err: err}
+			return &EncodeError{Path: path.key(name).String(), Err: err}
 		}
 		if mv == nil {
-			return &EncodeError{Path: joinKey(ctx, name), Err: errNilMarshalTOML}
+			return &EncodeError{Path: path.key(name).String(), Err: errNilMarshalTOML}
 		}
 		v = reflect.ValueOf(mv)
 	}
@@ -366,10 +502,11 @@ func addField(doc *tomlDoc, name string, v reflect.Value, ctx string) error {
 	// a scalar kind or a struct.
 	s, isText, err := textValue(v)
 	if err != nil {
-		return &EncodeError{Path: joinKey(ctx, name), Err: err}
+		return &EncodeError{Path: path.key(name).String(), Err: err}
 	}
 	if isText {
-		return doc.appendScalar(name, s, ctx)
+		doc.addScalar(name, s)
+		return nil
 	}
 	v = followPtr(v)
 	if !v.IsValid() {
@@ -384,37 +521,33 @@ func addField(doc *tomlDoc, name string, v reflect.Value, ctx string) error {
 	switch v.Kind() {
 	case reflect.Struct:
 		if isScalarStruct(v.Type()) {
-			return doc.appendScalar(name, v.Interface(), ctx)
+			doc.addScalar(name, v.Interface())
+			return nil
 		}
-		return addSubTable(doc, name, v, ctx)
+		return addSubTable(doc, name, v, path)
 	case reflect.Map:
-		return addSubTable(doc, name, v, ctx)
+		return addSubTable(doc, name, v, path)
 	case reflect.Slice, reflect.Array:
-		return addArrayValue(doc, name, v, ctx)
+		return addArrayValue(doc, name, v, path)
 	default:
 		val, err := normaliseValue(v)
 		if err != nil {
-			return fmt.Errorf("interpres: %s.%s: %w", ctx, name, err)
+			return fmt.Errorf("interpres: %s: %w", path.key(name), err)
 		}
-		return doc.appendScalar(name, val, ctx)
+		doc.addScalar(name, val)
-	}
-}
-
-// appendScalar wraps addScalar with a uniform error path.
-func (d *tomlDoc) appendScalar(name string, val any, ctx string) error {
-	d.addScalar(name, val)
 		return nil
 	}
+}
 
-func addSubTable(doc *tomlDoc, name string, v reflect.Value, ctx string) error {
+func addSubTable(doc *tomlDoc, name string, v reflect.Value, path encPath) error {
 	sub := &tomlDoc{ctx: doc.ctx, opts: doc.opts}
 	switch v.Kind() {
 	case reflect.Struct:
-		if err := buildStructDoc(v, sub, joinKey(ctx, name)); err != nil {
+		if err := buildStructDoc(v, sub, path.key(name)); err != nil {
 			return err
 		}
 	case reflect.Map:
-		if err := buildMapDoc(v, sub, joinKey(ctx, name)); err != nil {
+		if err := buildMapDoc(v, sub, path.key(name)); err != nil {
 			return err
 		}
 	}
@@ -422,7 +555,7 @@ func addSubTable(doc *tomlDoc, name string, v reflect.Value, ctx string) error {
 	return nil
 }
 
-func addArrayValue(doc *tomlDoc, name string, v reflect.Value, ctx string) error {
+func addArrayValue(doc *tomlDoc, name string, v reflect.Value, path encPath) error {
 	if v.Kind() == reflect.Slice && v.IsNil() {
 		// A nil slice has no explicit representation in TOML, so it is skipped.
 		return nil
@@ -436,9 +569,14 @@ func addArrayValue(doc *tomlDoc, name string, v reflect.Value, ctx string) error
 		if doc.opts.omitEmptyArrays {
 			return nil
 		}
-		return doc.appendScalar(name, []any{}, ctx)
+		doc.addScalar(name, []any{})
+		return nil
 	}
 
+	// The element paths hang off this one; they render only when an error
+	// names them.
+	apath := path.key(name)
+
 	// Every element is resolved through MarshalTOML first, so an element that
 	// renders itself as a scalar, a table or a value array is classified by
 	// what it produces rather than by its Go kind, and its method runs once.
@@ -449,7 +587,7 @@ func addArrayValue(doc *tomlDoc, name string, v reflect.Value, ctx string) error
 				return err
 			}
 		}
-		ev, err := resolveElement(v.Index(i), fmt.Sprintf("%s[%d]", joinKey(ctx, name), i))
+		ev, err := resolveElement(v.Index(i), apath.elem(i))
 		if err != nil {
 			return err
 		}
@@ -485,17 +623,17 @@ func addArrayValue(doc *tomlDoc, name string, v reflect.Value, ctx string) error
 			switch ev.Kind() {
 			case reflect.Struct:
 				if isScalarStruct(ev.Type()) {
-					return &EncodeError{Path: fmt.Sprintf("%s[%d]", joinKey(ctx, name), i), Err: errors.New("heterogeneous array contains scalar")}
+					return &EncodeError{Path: apath.elem(i).String(), Err: errors.New("heterogeneous array contains scalar")}
 				}
-				if err := buildStructDoc(ev, sub, joinKey(ctx, fmt.Sprintf("%s[%d]", name, i))); err != nil {
+				if err := buildStructDoc(ev, sub, apath.elem(i)); err != nil {
 					return err
 				}
 			case reflect.Map:
-				if err := buildMapDoc(ev, sub, joinKey(ctx, fmt.Sprintf("%s[%d]", name, i))); err != nil {
+				if err := buildMapDoc(ev, sub, apath.elem(i)); err != nil {
 					return err
 				}
 			default:
-				return &EncodeError{Path: joinKey(ctx, name), Err: errors.New("heterogeneous array, expected table")}
+				return &EncodeError{Path: apath.elem(i).String(), Err: errors.New("heterogeneous array, expected table")}
 			}
 			subs[i] = sub
 		}
@@ -514,27 +652,37 @@ func addArrayValue(doc *tomlDoc, name string, v reflect.Value, ctx string) error
 		}
 		val, err := normaliseValue(ev)
 		if err != nil {
-			return &EncodeError{Path: fmt.Sprintf("%s[%d]", joinKey(ctx, name), i), Err: err}
+			return &EncodeError{Path: apath.elem(i).String(), Err: err}
 		}
 		items[i] = val
 	}
-	return doc.appendScalar(name, items, ctx)
+	doc.addScalar(name, items)
+	return nil
 }
 
 // marshalerOf finds the Marshaler a value carries: on the value itself, or on
 // its address, so a pointer-receiver MarshalTOML is found on an addressable
 // struct field or slice element, exactly as textMarshalerOf finds MarshalText.
+// The lookup consults the per-type flag cache, so an interface value is built
+// only where the assertion can succeed; an interface-typed value is asked
+// dynamically, because what it holds may implement the interface when the
+// interface type itself does not.
 func marshalerOf(v reflect.Value) (Marshaler, bool) {
 	if !v.CanInterface() {
 		return nil, false
 	}
-	if m, ok := v.Interface().(Marshaler); ok {
+	if v.Kind() == reflect.Interface {
-		return m, true
+		m, ok := v.Interface().(Marshaler)
+		return m, ok
 	}
-	if v.CanAddr() {
+	f := encTypeFlags(v.Type())
-		if m, ok := v.Addr().Interface().(Marshaler); ok {
+	if f&encFlagMarshaler != 0 {
-			return m, true
+		m, ok := v.Interface().(Marshaler)
+		return m, ok
 	}
+	if f&encFlagAddrMarshaler != 0 && v.CanAddr() {
+		m, ok := v.Addr().Interface().(Marshaler)
+		return m, ok
 	}
 	return nil, false
 }
@@ -542,10 +690,10 @@ func marshalerOf(v reflect.Value) (Marshaler, bool) {
 // resolveElement looks through pointers and runs MarshalTOML, so an array
 // element is classified by what its method produces. path names the element,
 // for the errors the method can raise.
-func resolveElement(v reflect.Value, path string) (reflect.Value, error) {
+func resolveElement(v reflect.Value, path encPath) (reflect.Value, error) {
 	ev := followPtr(v)
 	if !ev.IsValid() {
-		return ev, &EncodeError{Path: path, Err: errors.New("nil element")}
+		return ev, &EncodeError{Path: path.String(), Err: errors.New("nil element")}
 	}
 	m, ok := marshalerOf(ev)
 	if !ok {
@@ -553,14 +701,14 @@ func resolveElement(v reflect.Value, path string) (reflect.Value, error) {
 	}
 	mv, err := m.MarshalTOML()
 	if err != nil {
-		return reflect.Value{}, &EncodeError{Path: path, Err: err}
+		return reflect.Value{}, &EncodeError{Path: path.String(), Err: err}
 	}
 	if mv == nil {
-		return reflect.Value{}, &EncodeError{Path: path, Err: errNilMarshalTOML}
+		return reflect.Value{}, &EncodeError{Path: path.String(), Err: errNilMarshalTOML}
 	}
 	ev = followPtr(reflect.ValueOf(mv))
 	if !ev.IsValid() {
-		return ev, &EncodeError{Path: path, Err: errors.New("nil element")}
+		return ev, &EncodeError{Path: path.String(), Err: errors.New("nil element")}
 	}
 	return ev, nil
 }
@@ -731,20 +879,25 @@ func textValue(v reflect.Value) (string, bool, error) {
 	return string(b), true, nil
 }
 
-// textMarshalerOf finds the encoding.TextMarshaler for v: on the value itself,
+// textMarshalerOf finds the encoding.TextMarshaler for v through the same
-// or on its address, so a pointer-receiver MarshalText is found on an
+// flag cache: on the value itself, or on its address, so a pointer-receiver
-// addressable struct field.
+// MarshalText is found on an addressable struct field.
 func textMarshalerOf(v reflect.Value) (encoding.TextMarshaler, bool) {
 	if !v.CanInterface() {
 		return nil, false
 	}
-	if m, ok := v.Interface().(encoding.TextMarshaler); ok {
+	if v.Kind() == reflect.Interface {
-		return m, true
+		m, ok := v.Interface().(encoding.TextMarshaler)
+		return m, ok
 	}
-	if v.CanAddr() {
+	f := encTypeFlags(v.Type())
-		if m, ok := v.Addr().Interface().(encoding.TextMarshaler); ok {
+	if f&encFlagTextMarshaler != 0 {
-			return m, true
+		m, ok := v.Interface().(encoding.TextMarshaler)
+		return m, ok
 	}
+	if f&encFlagAddrTextMarshaler != 0 && v.CanAddr() {
+		m, ok := v.Addr().Interface().(encoding.TextMarshaler)
+		return m, ok
 	}
 	return nil, false
 }
@@ -767,13 +920,6 @@ func isTableElementValue(v reflect.Value) bool {
 	return isTableElementType(v.Type())
 }
 
-func joinKey(ctx, name string) string {
-	if ctx == "" {
-		return name
-	}
-	return ctx + "." + name
-}
-
 // --- emission ------------------------------------------------------------
 
 // writeBlankLine writes a single newline before a table or array-of-tables
@@ -788,8 +934,15 @@ func (e *encoder) writeBlankLine() {
 
 func (e *encoder) emitDoc(doc *tomlDoc, prefix []string) error {
 	if e.opts.groupByKind {
-		scalars, tables, arrays := doc.partitionedEntries()
+		// Scalars first, then inline sub-tables as value lines, then the
-		for _, kv := range scalars {
+		// remaining tables as headers, then arrays of tables. Each pass walks
+		// the entries in place; grouping copies of them cost the encoder a
+		// third of its allocations for nothing.
+		for i := range doc.entries {
+			kv := &doc.entries[i]
+			if kv.kind != entryScalar {
+				continue
+			}
 			if err := e.writeKV(kv.key, kv.val); err != nil {
 				return err
 			}
@@ -797,17 +950,22 @@ func (e *encoder) emitDoc(doc *tomlDoc, prefix []string) error {
 		// An inlined sub-table is a value line, so it has to precede every
 		// header of this document: a line written after a [header] would be
 		// read back as part of that table.
-		headers := make([]entry, 0, len(tables))
+		for i := range doc.entries {
-		for _, t := range tables {
+			t := &doc.entries[i]
+			if t.kind != entryTable {
+				continue
+			}
 			inlined, err := e.writeInlineSubTableIfSmall(t.key, t.doc)
 			if err != nil {
 				return err
 			}
-			if !inlined {
+			t.emitted = inlined
-				headers = append(headers, t)
 		}
+		for i := range doc.entries {
+			t := &doc.entries[i]
+			if t.kind != entryTable || t.emitted {
+				continue
 			}
-		for _, t := range headers {
 			path := append(append([]string{}, prefix...), t.key)
 			e.writeBlankLine()
 			e.buf.WriteByte('[')
@@ -819,7 +977,11 @@ func (e *encoder) emitDoc(doc *tomlDoc, prefix []string) error {
 				return err
 			}
 		}
-		for _, a := range arrays {
+		for i := range doc.entries {
+			a := &doc.entries[i]
+			if a.kind != entryArray {
+				continue
+			}
 			path := append(append([]string{}, prefix...), a.key)
 			for _, sub := range a.docs {
 				e.writeBlankLine()
@@ -918,21 +1080,37 @@ func (e *encoder) writeKey(key string) error {
 	if !utf8.ValidString(key) {
 		return fmt.Errorf("interpres: key %q is not valid UTF-8", key)
 	}
-	return writeQuotedString(&e.buf, key)
+	return writeQuotedString(e.buf, key)
 }
 
 // writeQuotedString writes s as a TOML basic string (double-quoted) to buf.
-// Returns an error only if s is not valid UTF-8; invalid byte sequences
+// Returns an error only if s is not valid UTF-8.
-// within a valid UTF-8 string are encoded as \ufffd replacement characters.
 func writeQuotedString(buf *bytes.Buffer, s string) error {
 	if !utf8.ValidString(s) {
 		return fmt.Errorf("interpres: string is not valid UTF-8")
 	}
 	buf.WriteByte('"')
 	for i := 0; i < len(s); {
+		// Write the run of plain characters in one go; the scan stops at a
+		// byte that needs an escape, a control character, or a multi-byte rune.
+		j := i
+		for j < len(s) {
+			c := s[j]
+			if c < 0x20 || c == 0x7f || c == '"' || c == '\\' || c >= 0x80 {
+				break
+			}
+			j++
+		}
+		if j > i {
+			buf.WriteString(s[i:j])
+			i = j
+		}
+		if i >= len(s) {
+			break
+		}
 		r, size := utf8.DecodeRuneInString(s[i:])
 		if r == utf8.RuneError && size == 1 {
-			buf.WriteString(`\ufffd`)
+			buf.WriteString("\\ufffd")
 			i++
 			continue
 		}
@@ -963,7 +1141,7 @@ func writeEscapedRune(buf *bytes.Buffer, r rune) {
 		buf.WriteString(`\r`)
 	default:
 		if r < 0x20 || r == 0x7f {
-			fmt.Fprintf(buf, `\u%04X`, r)
+			fmt.Fprintf(buf, "\\u%04X", r)
 		} else {
 			buf.WriteRune(r)
 		}
@@ -1034,12 +1212,23 @@ func (e *encoder) writeValue(val any) error {
 // writeInlineMap renders m as a TOML inline table, on one line when it fits
 // there and across lines when it does not.
 func (e *encoder) writeInlineMap(m map[string]any) error {
+	// An encoder that is itself measuring renders single-line by contract, so
+	// a nested inline table needs no measuring pass of its own.
+	if e.limit >= noInlineBreak {
+		return e.writeInlineMapFlat(m)
+	}
 	flat := e.flat()
-	if err := flat.writeInlineMapFlat(m); err != nil {
+	err := flat.writeInlineMapFlat(m)
+	if err != nil {
+		flat.release()
 		return err
 	}
-	if e.column()+flat.buf.Len() <= e.limit {
+	fits := e.column()+flat.buf.Len() <= e.limit
+	if fits {
 		e.buf.Write(flat.buf.Bytes())
+	}
+	flat.release()
+	if fits {
 		return nil
 	}
 	return e.writeInlineMapMultiline(m)
@@ -1180,20 +1369,25 @@ func (e *encoder) writeInlineSubTableIfSmall(name string, doc *tomlDoc) (bool, e
 	}
 	flat := e.flat()
 	if err := flat.writeInlineDoc(doc); err != nil {
+		flat.release()
 		return false, err
 	}
 	if flat.buf.Len() > e.opts.inlineTablesAt {
+		flat.release()
 		return false, nil
 	}
 	if err := e.writeKey(name); err != nil {
+		flat.release()
 		return false, err
 	}
 	e.buf.WriteString(" = ")
 	if e.column()+flat.buf.Len() <= e.limit {
 		e.buf.Write(flat.buf.Bytes())
 	} else if err := e.writeInlineDocMultiline(doc); err != nil {
+		flat.release()
 		return false, err
 	}
+	flat.release()
 	e.buf.WriteByte('\n')
 	return true, nil
 }
@@ -1201,9 +1395,9 @@ func (e *encoder) writeInlineSubTableIfSmall(name string, doc *tomlDoc) (bool, e
 func (e *encoder) writeStringVal(s string) error {
 	if e.opts.literalMultilineAt > 0 && strings.ContainsRune(s, '\n') &&
 		len(s) >= e.opts.literalMultilineAt && canBeLiteralMultiline(s) {
-		return writeLiteralMultilineString(&e.buf, s)
+		return writeLiteralMultilineString(e.buf, s)
 	}
-	return writeQuotedString(&e.buf, s)
+	return writeQuotedString(e.buf, s)
 }
 
 // canBeLiteralMultiline reports whether s can be carried verbatim by the

interpres.go

@@ -24,6 +24,7 @@ import (
 	"context"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
+	"slices"
 )
 
 // A SyntaxError describes a malformed TOML document, including the 1-based
@@ -423,7 +424,12 @@ func (e *Encoder) MarshalContext(ctx context.Context, v any) ([]byte, error) {
 	enc.ctx = ctx
 	enc.opts = *e
 	if err := enc.encode(v); err != nil {
+		enc.release()
 		return nil, err
 	}
-	return enc.bytes(), nil
+	// The output leaves the pooled buffer as a copy, so the next Marshal
+	// reuses the buffer without touching what the caller holds.
+	out := slices.Clone(enc.buf.Bytes())
+	enc.release()
+	return out, nil
 }